Friday, September 6, 2019
Situation Assessment of Various Response Teams Essay Example for Free
Situation Assessment of Various Response Teams Essay Situation Assessment of Various Response Teams Introduction            Effective response to incidences obliges an appropriate planning approach that is founded on the disaster evaluation of the situation (Schwartz, 2013). Such a situation obliges a reaction on the planned emergency management process that is applied to the organization. This is aimed at ensuring that perilous assets of an organization are safeguarded from probable hazards (Salmon, Stanton, Jenkins Walker, 2011). Before the planning and the execution of the response, the assessment of the situation provides the requisite data for examination. This data assists in the evaluation of the usefulness of the existing emergency response tactics used by the organization. This prior situational assessment entails defining the needs and urgencies of the emergency response tactics that are utilized by the organization.            For effective decision-making, planning and control of the whole process, situational management becomes a vital element for application (Comfort, 2004). This management helps in undertaking of all the phases of disaster response through facilitating ease of planning and orchestrating of effective recovery strategies. This memo sets to describe the steps that one would take to conduct the assessment as the starting point. It also discusses the key success factors in the management of large, multi-agency as well as multi-jurisdictional response programs. Further, it discusses numerous ways of determining success of the response. In addition, the memo entails an elucidation of how drills and tests that precisely evaluate the key factors for response can be designed. Steps That One Would Take To Conduct the Postmortem            The first step, in undertaking the assessment, is defining objectives followed by terms of reference. In this step, the assessor ruminates on the reasons of the assessment practice. The objectives of the assessment activity, the questions that require answers and the entailed activities are defined. The required outcomes from the assessment are specifically determined at this step. The assessor is advised to be realistic as possible when carrying out this activity. As Comfort (2004), gauging the minimum amount of information that is required to attain the necessary output is vital to this step. The assessor then thinks about the end user of the information obtained from the assessment and, in this case; the senior government officials concerned with the disaster event response.            The next step involves choosing the kind of assessment to be applied. There are usually three types of assessment that can be applied namely; rapid, detailed and continual assessments (Salmon, Stanton, Jenkins Walker, 2011). Rapid assessment is executed during major disruptions such as after the occurrence of an earthquake. Detailed assessment is carried out on various occasions such as after a rapid assessment, on the situation where detailed information is required and when the situation under scrutiny keeps on changing gradually. Continual assessment is done after a detailed assessment has been carried out. According to Schwartz (2013), this kind of assessment involves updating information on the current situation and demanding for the relevant feedback from the involved is vital.            The third step is deciding on whether or not to involve partners in the assessment. At point, an individual decides on whether to undertake the assessment on their own or with partners. Partners may either be internal or external depending on the sensitivity of the assessment being carried out and needs of the assessment (Comfort, 2004). When internal partners are involved, their capacities and roles should be considered. Also, their actual roles in the exercise should be defined precisely. Involving external partners call for a joint assessment that has some benefits. These benefits are; improved coordination and cooperation in the planning, efficient use of resources and reduced assessment fatigue (Jensen, 2011). A joint assessment calls for appropriate divisions of responsibilities as per the agreement of the partners.            In the next step in undertaking a detailed review of the secondary information, every assessor is obliged to undertake a comprehensive review of the available secondary information on the subject of assessment (Comfort, 2004). The information entails the background information, and the information in direct relation to the issues identified in terms of reference (Salmon, Stanton, Jenkins Walker, 2011). It also involves the information pertaining to the sources and type of latest changes. This information helps in grasping the initial idea of the assessment and the related problems that the assessor might experience.            The other step is the collection of information pertaining to the ongoing responses of the team. At this point, choosing the best method of collecting the actual information pertaining to the performance of the various response teams is vital (Schwartz, 2013). This is so because the correct methodology ensures that only the right information pertaining to the situation is obtained. This endeavor obliges for gathering all the appropriate means in terms of resources, logistics, human and time (Jensen, 2011). In the possession of these resources, all the needed information can be obtained with ease. After compiling, the information pertaining to the assessment activity is presented to the recipients, in this case, the senior government officials. The presentation must be simple and should present a detailed understanding of the activities of various response teams. The Key Success Factors            There are several basic success factors that are evident in response programs. These factors ensure that emergency operations fulfill the projected aims and objectives of alleviation, reaction and recovery (Comfort, 2004). The main aim of incident response is to ensure a rapid and effective recovery from a security event. In addition, the response gears towards decreasing the impacts inflicted by the threat or disruption to normal functioning of facilities where the incidence has occurred. A systematic approach plan executed in line with the standard measures of corporeal security is applied with an aim of mitigating the probability of reoccurrence of the event.            One of the crucial success factors, towards managing large, multi-agency and multi-jurisdictional response programs, is inter-agency communication (Salmon, Stanton, Jenkins Walker, 2011). This type of communication is done on the basis of a collective framework. As Jensen (2011) asserts, collaboration among agencies is crucial in guaranteeing effective disaster response. For this reason, the communication among these agencies should be flexible to guarantee a consistent communication framework. This framework ensures that the collaboration between the private sector and the government is at its best for effective management of national calamities.            This happens regardless of the magnitude, geographical location and causation of the disaster. Also, the joint system of information management assists in enhancing public communication by relaying the information pertaining to a disaster accurately and in time to the public (Jensen, 2011). This cross-communication facilitates the meeting of various response team communicators whose aim is to develop, organize and deliver a common message relating to the event. Such meetings facilitate the elimination of delivery of dissimilar information relating to an event by the government and non-governmental agencies. The purpose of inter-agency communication is not only to facilitate effort coordination of various jurisdictions, but also guarantees joint decision-making framework. The framework is founded on the goals and aims, mete tactics and plans, public communications, and the primaries during the occurrence of the event (Schwartz, 2013). This aids in improving the efficiency of readiness for a disaster and the response of various agencies. This way, successful response to an event, the recovery from that event and prevention of its reoccurrence is guaranteed.            The second key success factor is effective reporting procedures of the disaster event. The procedures, of reporting a disaster event, are vital in enhancing the efficacy of response actions to the event (Comfort, 2004). An efficacy reporting procedure is grounded on the fundamental facets of effective communications that guarantee to extend to the largest audience possible. The reporting of the disaster event must be fast enough so as to mitigate any probable losses that may emanate from the event (Kellams, 2007). For this reason, utilization of effective reporting networks and procedures which manifest minimum constraints. These procedures are obliged to conform to the evacuation policies usually applied when all physical security bounds have been entirely overwhelmed (Kellams, 2007). These policies advocates for adequate communication of the incident, suppression of the destruction imposed by the event and mitigation of eminent risks thr ough safeguard crucial assets.            The third key success factor is effective management of resources. Effective response programs oblige for effective management of resources. This exercise primarily starts with the identification of the resources that are available at all levels of jurisdiction (Schwartz, 2013). The identification is followed by classifying, transmitting, tracking and reception of resources. All these activities call for effective management so as to facilitate timely delivery of these resources and prevention of wastage. This way, the preparation, reaction and recovery process of the disaster event is effectively carried out devoid of impediments (Comfort, 2004). Resource management should also entail the various agreements among several agencies who form response teams for effective resource mobilization. This way, the effect brought about by the disaster event is minimized, and the recovery strategies become more effective.            The fourth basic success factor is enhanced public communication. At this point, crucial media relations should be cultivated in ensuring effective communication of the disaster event to the public (Kellams, 2007). During initial stages of reacting to disaster and recovery operations, the involved teams should are obliged to establish communication channels that are capable of reaching the victims with swiftness. In most cases, effective public communication is usually realized through the use of low-price and low-tech networks (Kellams, 2007). This is so because they are believed to be the most effective and are easily accessed by the victims of a disaster event. Some examples of such cheap communication channels that can be used are; megaphones, community radios and the Systems of Public Address. Measuring the Success of the Response            A given response to a disaster event is said to be successful only if it achieves its primary aims and objectives (Kellams, 2007). In all instances, the primary aim and objective of all response programs are to mitigate the potential damage affiliated with the event on human life and belongings by emphasizing on safety. In determining the success of the response, several variables can be used as discussed below.            The first way, of measuring the success of the response, is through the analysis of the depth of losses incurred after the event and comparison of it to the recovery depth (Kellam, 2006). The extent of loss is measured through the number of sustained fatal injuries, the minor injuries, and the reported total deaths. This is followed then by identification of the magnitude of loss affiliated with the event in terms of property (Comfort, 2004). This way, it is easier to assess the achievement of the response and recovery attempts put in place by the collaborating multi-agency teams. Effective responses to disastrous events are always geared towards minimizing the impacts of the event and to aid in the realization of the best possible recovery plan. Also, these responses aim at preventing such disasters in the future. Assessing the initial possibility of the occurrence of the losses incurred compared to the assessment of the future occurrence of such an event is crucial. This is so because, it becomes easier to determine the success of the response (RodriÌ guez, Quarantelli Dynes, 2006).            The second way through which the success of the response is determined is through the evaluation of the level of collaboration between all the stakeholders. In the case of a disaster event, the stakeholders are the public, the government, as well as the response agencies (Comfort, 2004). Successful responses to events depend on the level of collaboration of all the above-mentioned stakeholders. This is so because each of the collaborators must take their part seriously and execute it with utmost articulation for a successful response program. For this reason, there must exist an effective communication channel among the stakeholders (Sadovich, 2007). This ensures that each fulfills their part without intruding into other stakeholder’s jurisdiction.            The stakeholders who have a common picture of the event and who worked tirelessly together throughout the whole response program is an indication of a successful response program (Gardner, 2013). This collaboration can only be guaranteed through effective communication among the stakeholders that in turn ensures effective resource management, sharing of responsibilities and planning of activities. When the above mentioned three activities become effective, the success of the response program is guaranteed. For this reason, establishment of the level of collaboration is an important measure of the success of response programs (Sadovich, 2007).            The third measure of the success of the response is an assessment of the time of distraction of the normalcy of the response. As Gardner (2013) asserts, a successful response to a disaster event usually occurs within the shortest time possible to guarantee minimum distraction of the operation of vital facilities during its execution. The minimum disruption is guaranteed through effective communication, better allocation of tasks among the multi-agency teams and effective allocation of resources. If a response program takes long to be accomplished, it means that there is a problem with one or even more of the three aforementioned perspectives. A prolonged response program may create a lot of disruptions of the critical facilities. To this end, the program may be termed as ineffective and thus unsuccessful. When all aspects of implementation of the program are well coordinated, there is minimum disruption of the crucial infrastructure (Gardn er, 2013). When this minimum disruption occurs, the response program is said to be successful. For this reason, the magnitude and duration of the disruption of crucial facilities is one of the metrics for assessing the success of a response program. Designing Drills and Tests for Evaluating Key Success Factors            The primary use of drills and tests is to evaluate the perilous success factors in the implementation of disaster response program. For this reason, the drills and tests are developed in accordance with the objectives and aims of the response program. First, the evaluation of inter-agency communication during the implementation response program necessitates an examination of the roles and accountabilities of different agencies that are collaborating. For this reason, individual contribution of the agencies must be accounted for during the evaluation of the success of inter-agency collaboration (Gardner, 2013).            Secondly, it is a must that the communication platforms used by different agencies in the process are evaluated. This way, it becomes easier to know different communication platforms that were used by different agencies who were collaborating. The agencies may have used a single platform of communication, or each may have used their independent platform. In most cases for national incidences, the use of a universal platform is encouraged. This is so because it is associated with prominence in managing emergency incidences. To this end, communication platforms are vital ingredients in designing drills and tests. To add on this, the preparedness to disaster is improving because of the use of uniform procedures in response teams reinforced by the application of the universal language. The standardization aspect also emphasizes on the use a set of universal techniques and information systems (Gardner, 2013). The two are developed to boost the operation of entities during the implementation of the response program. In addition, the two aspects serve as a strategic methodology that is used to facilitate effective management of operations during the program. The process of evaluating the efficiency of inter-agency teamwork and communication considerably rest on flexibility of appropriate implementation (Gardner, 2013). This flexibility relies on the progress of a chain of command that the government and non-governmental agencies adopt during the management of the occurrence.            Evaluation of efficient program response is carried out by assessing the base on which the channels of communication used are oriented (Jensen, 2011). These communication channels should be in line with the evacuation policies and techniques. For this reason, communication as a drill and test of evaluating the basic success factor of the response program is designed to conform to the laid down policies and techniques. The reporting of the disaster event should be done based on the real time of occurrence. The accuracy in reporting procedure and of the relayed information pertaining to the event is highly emphasized (Jensen, 2011). In evaluating the success of this factor, we base our information magnitude of the target population of the reporting. For this reason, a critical assessment of communication channels that were utilized during the response and their respective effectiveness in reaching the prospected audience is vital. Conclusion            In conclusion, this memo describes the steps that one would take to conduct assessing the performance of several response teams during a disaster event. These steps are; definition of objectives followed by terms of references, choosing the type of assessment to be used and deciding on involvement of partners. Other steps are; review of the secondary information, collection of information pertaining to the ongoing response and the presentation of the findings as well as recommendations to the officials. Also, the memo discusses some key success factors in managing large, multi-jurisdictional, as well as multi-agency response programs. These factors are universal framework inter-agency communication, efficient reporting and techniques, public communication and effective management of resources. Further, there is a discussion of various measures success of the response programs. These measures are the extent of loss caused by the disaster, t he level of collaboration during the program, and the duration of the disruption of normal operation of crucial infrastructures. Further, the last section discusses on how drills and tests, of evaluating key success factors, can be designed. This process, as discussed above, involves analyzing the roles and responsibilities bestowed on various agencies forming the team, and an evaluation response techniques and policies. References Comfort, L. (2004). Coordination in Rapidly Evolving Disaster Response Systems: The Role of Information. American Behavioral Scientist, 48(3), 295-313. doi:10.1177/0002764204268987 Gardner, S. (2013). Multi-Site Disaster Response and Coordination Best Practices. Rxresponse.org. Retrieved 21 January 2015, from http://www.rxresponse.org/news/blog/multi-site-disaster-response-and-coordination-best-practices Jensen, J. (2011). The Current NIMS Implementation Behavior of United States Counties. Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management, 8(1). doi:10.2202/1547-7355.1815 Kellams, C. (2007). NIMS and Homeland Security Field Guides. Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management, 4(1). doi:10.2202/1547-7355.1321 Rodriguez, H., Quarantelli, E., Dynes, R. (2006). Handbook of disaster research. New York: Springer. Sadovich, J. (2007). Review Disaster Resilience: An Integrated Approach. Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management, 4(4). doi:10.2202/1547-7355.1397 Salmon, P., Stanton, N., Jenkins, D., Walker, G. (2011). Coordination during multi-agency emergency response: issues and solutions. Disaster Prevention and Management, 20(2), 140-158. doi:10.1108/09653561111126085 Schwartz, K. (2013). Testimony before the Senate Committee on Homeland Security Governmental Affairs: The Boston Marathon Bombings. Source document
Thursday, September 5, 2019
Impact of Gender Inequality on Social Development Outcomes
Impact of Gender Inequality on Social Development Outcomes Reviewing the literature, it is clear that gender inequality has no positive effects on social development outcomes. On growth, the net impact of gender inequality is quite ambiguous; it can be a great hindrance to growth or only circumstantially support it. Wages and income are rapidly affected and can change aggregate demand. These differences in wages and income regulate the incentive systems which plan investment in human capital, which in turn affects growth. Gender gaps in education, on the other side are unfavorable to long term growth, due to the large positive externalities generated by female education, enhanced parental human capital dissemination and reduced fertility. Gender inequality in health and life expectancy impede long term growth and efficiency due to reduced working lives and lower productivity levels. These health and education impacts are the obstacle produced by gender inequality to social development. On social development, gender inequality is generally harmful, as equality improves societal health and education outcomes, as well as generating large externalities for society as a whole. The economic effects of gender inequality are now well recognized, despite the lack of a precise and broad body of research and literature. Chapters Two and Three emphasize the significance of gender equality in education and health as both are essential determinants of growth and social development. It is vital to continue this target to obtain the gains from improved female education while exercising concern not to overlook men’s own gender particular problems. Gender equality is definitely a dominant economic tool for economic and social development, requiring the foundation of opportunities for both sexes to maintain long-term growth, economic efficiency, social development and good governance. Ceteris paribus, there is enough evidence to believe that in the long-run, achievement of the goal of gender-equal opportunities in labor, health and education is far more efficient than the pervasive gender inequality we see today. The policy issue now will be to convert equality of opportunities into equal outcomes. The complexity of gender inequality does indeed stress that there may be a ‘market failure’ in achieving gender-equitable outcomes, but there is insufficient evidence to state whether or not forced outcomes will yield net productivity gains compared with the gender inequality existing conditions. Gender gaps in health and life expectancy harm a nation’s long term growth and productivity, and in employment they have negative effects on aggregate demand and short run output. Furthermore, female capital per worker has been shown to have a higher return than male capital per worker, and practical application of neoclassical theory shows that a higher steady-state output and growth rate will correspond with capital investment that is skewed towards the female. The benefits and costs to economic growth imposed by gender inequality are clearly skewed so that a reduction in gender inequality is a more favorable outcome to reach a higher long-term growth path, as the circumstantial and exceptional studies are somewhat more myopic and set over a certain period. Gender inequality may also promote growth in that it is a second-best solution for a male dominated political conflict and civil unrest which arises out of inequality. Having women bear the greater share of a nation’s income inequality, as they have historically done in patriarchal societies, may be a preferred option to society as a whole bearing this burden. It will decrease the likelihood of militant groups forming, and conflict then erupting over income inequality, which would create a far greater obstacle to growth. All of these findings suggest that gender inequality is harmful for the health and education aspects of social development, while supporting the policy opinion of lessening education and health gaps between men and women – often by targeting women directly. The other forms of social development previously discussed – health and education – have an important effect on the reduction of poverty and there is a high degree of linkage, especially with the different degrees of poverty and different definitions. These definitions have been broadened from just monetary poverty to include poverty in opportunity, capabilities, institutions and much more. While gender inequality and poverty are closely related, there is adequate evidence to show that reducing gender inequality only is not enough to reduce poverty. Just as economic growth, education, investment, aid or any other single variable is not enough to address poverty, neither is improving gender equality. Poverty reduction through gender equality will be brought about through a number of means – including health, education, and economic growth. While positive health and education outcomes are admittedly very useful tools for addressing poverty, the degree to which gender inequality directly determines poverty rates is very uncertain, and we cannot specify that simply improving gender inequality will reduce poverty. The influences of gender equality on human capital and economic growth are far better tools for poverty reduction than blindly putting more women in school, jobs and parliament. CONCLUSION  RECOMMENDATIONS Conclusion Gender differences in all socio economic aspects of earnings, wages, ability, health, capital and poverty broadened in several countries because women cannot have access and control over resources, gain from economic opportunities, and determine their authority in political field. The outcome suggests that an exogenous boost in girls’ access to education creates an enhanced environment for economic growth and that the effect is mostly strong for middle income countries. However the indirect effects on growth happen through the growth externalities of fertility, investments in children. I have reached the conclusion that gender inequality normally has undesirable effects on all facets of socioeconomic development. Moreover, there are extremely little facts to advocate that any economic effectiveness vs. gender parity trade off exists gender equality is also gender efficient. Gender inequality is now gradually becoming known as an imperative macroeconomic variable, but still not considered as a major determinant of growth. Recommendation The economic effects of gender inequality are now well recognized, despite the lack of a specific and extensive body of research and literature. I have been able to draw some definitive policy recommendations from the research conducted in this project, but there is still much to understand if we are to act effectively and decisively. International development practitioners have adopted the policy of ‘gender mainstreaming’, but despite this involving both sexes by definition, there is a recurring and persistent focus on women. In advanced economies, women are now more educated than men and male tertiary enrolments are declining,[1] meaning that we should expect to see a decline in aggregate male human capital. This may be a concern, especially if men are better at mathematics and technical sciences. Furthermore, the declining fertility rates of these advanced economies have led to serious skill shortages, population shortages, and structural labor market problems. This project offers clear evidence that gender equality may assist in poverty reduction through a number of different channels, but that it cannot be expected to directly, independently and systematically reduce poverty. It is recommended that gender equality is never viewed as a ‘magic-bullet’ solution to poverty reduction or ‘development’. In fact, it appears that promoting gender equality in education and employment may be one of those few policies that have been termed ‘win-win’ strategies. It would promote economic welfare and effectiveness, promote other critical human development goals such as lower mortality and fertility, and it would be intrinsically valuable as well. The task at hand is to develop a framework to understand and deal with the reinforcing social and economic structures of gender inequality. [1] WDI, 2009
Buying Decision Behaviour
Buying Decision Behaviour Contents (Jump to) 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Types of Buying Decision Behaviour 3.0 The importance of understanding consumer buying behaviours 4.0 Conclusion References 1.0 Introduction Understanding consumer buying behaviour is crucial for successful marketing. Consumer buying behaviour is defined as the buying behaviour of final consumers, individuals and households who purchase goods and services for personal consumption (Kotler, Brown, Adam and Armstrong, 2001: 858). Consumer buying behaviour can be classified into four groups: complex, variety-seeking, dissonance-reducing and habitual buying behaviour. These buying decision behaviours vary in terms of the involvement levels and the perceived differences between brands (Lawson, Tidwell, Rainbird, Louden and Bitta, 1997: 523). According to Mitchell (2002: 71), one of the core functions of marketing is to connect buyers and sellers as efficiently and effectively as possible. Therefore, it is imperative for marketers to acquire a profound and comprehensive understanding of consumer buying behaviours. 2.0 Types of Buying Decision Behaviour The relationship between different types of consumer buying behaviour with the level of consumer involvement and the degrees of differences between brands. The level of involvement in a purchasing a product is related to the importance of the purchase, the risks involved and the type of cognitive processing that is generated (East, 1997: 19). 2.1 Complex buying behaviour Complex buying behaviour is personalised by high levels of consumer involvement in a purchase and significant perceived differences among brands (Kotler, et al., 2001: 211). Consumers usually apply complex buying behaviour when the intended purchases are expensive, infrequent and risky (Rowley, 1997: 88). Purchase decisions are more intricate compared to other products that are less costly (Chao and Gupta, 1995: 48). According to Adcock (1993: 54), buyers undertaking complex buying behaviour are likely to go through each stage of the decision making process. They will usually spend time inquiring about the product, evaluating alternative brands and comparing options before finally making the purchase. For example, a person who wishes to buy a car would be very involved in deciding what car to purchase. He or she will engage in an extensive information search, such as by visiting different car dealers, surfing the Internet and so on, to evaluate and compare the numerous types of model s available in the market and also to scout for the best deals. They may take weeks or months to make a decision. A car is an expensive asset and will usually be used for a long time. As a result, consumers undergo complex buying decision behaviour to ensure that they will not regret their investment in future. 2.2 Dissonance-reducing buying behaviour Dissonance-reducing buying behaviour encompasses high involvement in purchase decisions but little dissimilarity between brands (Adcock, 1993: 57). Purchases are usually expensive, infrequent and risky (Kotler, et al., 2001: 211). The buying decision is often made from only a small range of products. Considering the products brand name is not the main priority in the purchase decision, consumers will make their choice by evaluating and comparing the products based on their price, quality, performance and the consumers individual preferences ( Kennedy and Kiel, 2000: 84). For example, when purchasing a lawn mower, consumers may face a high involvement decision because a lawn mower is rather costly. However, the lawn mower brand names will not be of much concern to consumers. Buyers will still look around and compare different lawn mowers based on their extrinsic features, and purchases are normally made within a shorter period of time as opposed to complex buying behaviour (Kotler, et al., 2001: 212). After making a purchase, the consumer may encounter postpurchase dissonance, also known as after-sales discomfort, resulting from discrepencies between the consumers decision and the consumers prior evaluation (Lawson, et al.,1997: 447). For instance, the buyer may discover undesirable traits or hear negative comments about the lawn mower and thus regret his or her purchase. To minimise such dissonance, marketers have introduced certain features to satisfy customers, such as warranties and after-sales services (Lawson, et al.,1997: 637). 2.3 Variety-seeking buying behaviour Variety-seeking buying behaviour can be defined as consumer buying behaviour in situations concerning low consumer involvement but with significant perceived differences in brands (Kotler, et al., 2001: 212). These purchases are made simply because the of the consumers desire for novelty (Lawson, et al., 1997: 525). In other words, consumer may deviate from their normal brand purchase because they feel like trying something different for a change. Consumers who practice variety-seeking buying behaviour buy for the sake of diversifying and not as a result of dissatisfaction with the product (Adcock, 1993: 57). To further illustrate the point, a consumer who regularly buys Kellogs Corn Flakes, whom one day opts to purchase Nestles Honey Stars for a change, is engaging in variety-seeking buying behaviour. The consumer may be just bored of Kellogs Corn Flakes for awhile after consuming them every morning and would like to try out a different cereal, not because he or she is discontented with Kellogs Corn Flakes. Marketers have developed strategies to reduce this consumer behaviour, which will be discussed in the later sections of this report. 2.4 Habitual buying behaviour Consumers perform habitual buying behaviour when buying frequently purchased products that are relatively of low cost and that involves very little risk and decision effort (Kennedy and Kiel, 2000: 84). There is low consumer involvement and few differences between brands in this buying behaviour (Rowley, 1997: 89). These products are purchased almost automatically out of habit rather than brand loyalty by consumers( http://www.bbci.freeserve.co.uk/SAGEPROJECT/UnderstandingConsumerBehaviour.asp). This normally applies to grocery products. For instance, people do not generally spend much time or mental effort selecting a packet of sugar or a bar of soap. They do not really pay attention to the brand names of these products. Unlike complex buying behaviour, consumers who purchase the same product regularly, do not go through all the steps in the decision making process (Kotler, et al., 2001: 212). They need not undertake an information search or evaluate and compare the different produc ts in the market. Instead, they receive information through repetitive advertisements on the television or newspapers and this forms brand familiarity. Consumers are not inclined to a product, rather, they select the particular brand out of familiarity (Kotler, et al., 2001: 212). They would just recognise their need and immediately make a purchase decision. They may not even bother to make a postpurchase evaluation (Rowley, 1997: 89). 3.0 The importance of understanding consumer buying behaviours 3.1 Develop a more effective and efficient marketing strategy Consumer buying behaviour is an integral part of marketing. Attaining a deeper comprehension of the different types of consumer buying behaviour would be a boon for marketers as it would assist them in developing a more sophisticated marketing strategy, thus allowing the organisation to compete more efficiently and effectively than its competitors (Mitchell, 2002: 74). By analysing the type of buying behaviour that relates to the organisations products, marketers are able perform effective segmentation, which may lead to a more efficient targeting of resources (Rowley, 1997: 89). For example, for products that are susceptible to complex buying behaviours such as automobiles and computers, marketers tend to concentrate on promoting them on the basis of the features and the benefits a consumer may gain from the products (Adcock, 1993: 56).. Most car catalogues will show pictures of the engine and highlight the details of the technical features of the vehicle. For products that are more prone to dissonance-reducing and habitual buying behaviours, marketers will advertise substantially to ensure that their products will be considered by as many people as possible (Adcock, 1993: 57) and also to familiarise consumers with their products (East, 1997: 19). Providing another example, marketers will try to encourage habitual buying behaviour for products that are more inclined to variety-seeking buying behaviours among consumers by extensive advertising and dominating shelf space. In contrast, marketers may also try to encourage variety-seeking buying behaviour by offering promotions and free samples (Kotler, et al., 2001: 212). They do so to induce new customers to purchase their products. To summarise the point, a clear understanding of the types of buying behaviours can help marketers to construct relevant marketing strategi es to market the particular product so as to increase the products sales. 3.2 Form a healthy relationship between buyers and sellers As mentioned earlier, one of the core functions of marketing is to connect buyers and sellers as efficiently and effectively as possible (Mitchell, 2002: 71). The marketing concept stresses that organisations should create a marketing mix that will satisfy their customers better than their competitors. To do so, marketers must examine the major influences that determine what, where, when and how consumers make purchasing decisions (http://www.bbci.freeserve.co.uk/SAGEPROJECT/UnderstandingConsumerBehaviour.asp). According to Wilson (1998: 785), marketers who understand the types of buying behaviour that are related to their product will be able to come up with marketing techniques that will provide customer satisfaction and at the same time, establish brand loyalty among its customers. Marketers should always remind themselves that satisfied consumers would have a very positive impact on the organisations success. Therefore, it is essential for marketers to understand and evaluate the different types of consumer buying behaviour. 4.0 Conclusion The four types of buying behaviour mentioned earlier basically summarises how and why consumers make their purchase decisions. However, one has to keep in mind that the purchase of a particular product does not always derive the same type of decision making behaviour (East, 1997: 19). For example, an affluent businessman who enjoys collecting cars may not undergo complex buying behaviour as opposed to an average earning salesman who is buying a car for transportation purposes. In conclusion, understanding consumer buying behaviour can assist marketers in constructing a more efficient and effective marketing strategy allowing them to form a tighter relationship with their customers. Hence, it is vital for marketers to understand the four different types of buying behaviour that relates to their product. References Adcock, D., Bradfield, R., Halborg, A., and Ross, C. (1993), Marketing Principles and Practice, Pitman Publishing, London. Chao, P. and Gupta, P.B. (1995), ‘Information search and efficiency of consumer choices of new cars International Marketing Review, Vol. 12, No. 6, pp 47-59. East, R. (1997), Consumer Behaviour: Advances and Applications in Marketing, Prentice Hall, London. Kotler, P., Brown, L., Adam, S., and Armstrong, G. (2001), Marketing, (5th Edn), Prentice Hall, Sydney. Lawson, R., Tidwell, P., Rainbird, P., Loudon, D., and Bitta, A.D. (1997), Consumer Behaviour in Australia and New Zealand, McGraw-Hill, Sydney. Kennedy, M and Kiel (2000). ‘Marketing: A Strategic Approach. Nelson Thompson Learning, Melbourne. Mitchell, A.S. (2002), ‘Do you really want to understand your customer? Journal of Consumer Behaviour, Vol. 2, Issue 1, pp 71-79. Rowley, J. (1997), ‘Focusing on customers Library Review, Vol 46, No. 2, pp 81-89. Samara, N., Understanding Consumer Behaviour, (http://www.bbci.freeserve.co.uk/SAGEPROJECT/UnderstandingConsumerBehaviour.asp) Accessed (30 August 2003) Wilson, D.F. (1998), ‘Why divide consumer and organisation buyer behaviour? European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 34, No. 7, pp 780-796.
Wednesday, September 4, 2019
Recycling Laws: Eco-Unfriendly? Essay -- Environmental Issues
Out of all the growing problems in the world, the massive accumulation of garbage seems to be the least of the people’s worries. Countless landfills are being satiated by trash of all shapes, sizes and composition; many now being paved over to serve as foundation for housing, airports, businesses, etc. If the situation were as simple to resolve as paving over the putrescent landfills, then there wouldn’t be debates or research about the environmental effects of pollution associated with improper discarding of waste materials. A majority of the types of waste can be recycled, but at what cost? Many will argue that recycling is the only way to eliminate such landfills and protect the environment from further damage. Several environmentalists groups and politicians seek to make recycling a legal responsibility, while the technology for recycling has progressed in recent years, the ratio of cost to practicality has remained essentially the same. If recycling were to be man dated, then there would have to be a paradigm shift in the circulation of products, from creation to redistribution, in order to make regulations practical. In previous generations, recycling was very limited in its capabilities and effectiveness. Several studies from the time period actually support the claim that more trash was produced than salvaged. The collection of a stack of papers left behind mounds of gloves, trash bags, food wrappers and water bottles that couldn’t be used. With that in mind, it is completely understandable as to why groups of people in the past were against salvaging materials. Since then, the ability to process raw or reused materials has increased tenfold. Now, almost everything from wastewater to the toughest polymers can be recycl... ...law wrapped around them. Without the combined contributions of all three of these major groups, the system will continue to be flawed, while money, resources and time, shall continue to be wasted trying to salvage from an ever growing junk pile. If any laws need to be emplaced then they should be limited to an initiating push, much like the ignition on a vehicle. Once the trifecta begins to pick up speed, any regulations used to propel the movement should be immediately relinquished and replaced with maintenance and education in order to promote a self-perpetuating behavior. Works Cited Esterl, Mike. â€Å"Plastic Recycling Falls Short as Too Few Do It.†Wall Street Journal. 19 Aug 2011: B.1. SIRS Issues Researcher. Web. 01 Apr 2012. Koch, Wendy. â€Å"Cities Turn Deeper Shades of Green.†USA TODAY. 30 Jun 2011: A.3. SIRS Issue Researcher. Web. 06 Mar 2012.
Tuesday, September 3, 2019
The Life of Kate Chopin :: essays research papers
The Life of Kate Chopin      Born originally as Katherine O’Flaherty, Kate Chopin came to life on February 8th, 1851 in St. Louis, Missouri to Thomas and Eliza O'Flaherty. The family she was born into was known as one of St. Louis’ wealthiest family’s because of her father’s well-known success as merchant involving the sale of boats and wholesale grocery.           In 1855 Thomas O'Flaherty died suddenly from a work-related railroad accident. Kate lacked male role models in her life after her father died. She was raised by three generations of women, including her maternal great-grandmother, Madame Victoria Verdon Charleville, who instructed Kate in music lessons, French lessons, and storytelling. Additionally, Kate attended the prestigious Sacred Heart Academy, which promoted intelligence and independent thinking: this helped Kate begin her lifelong love of reading and writing. When Kate was eleven, Madame Charleville died, and Kate's half-brother George was killed while fighting in the Civil War for the Confederate side.      At the age of nineteen Kate O’Flaherty married Oscar Chopin, the son of a wealthy cotton-growing family in Louisiana. The union between these two individuals produced six children (five boys and two girls). Oscar was French Catholic, as was Kate. In 1882, Oscar Chopin died of malaria also known at the time as swamp fever. Kate managed her husband's business for approximately a year and then returned to live near her mother in St. Louis. A year after her return, her mother passed away. To support herself and her family, Kate began to write. She was immediately successful and wrote short stories about people she had known in Louisiana. Her first novel, At Fault, was published in 1890 when Kate was forty. When The Awakening was published in 1899, the story created a scandal because of its portrayal of a strong, unconventional woman involved in an adulterous affair. It was inspired by a true story of a New Orleans woman who was infamous in the French Quarter.
Monday, September 2, 2019
Flood hazards: impacts and responses for the built environment Essay
Flood Introduction What are some of the major challenges emergency managers will confront during the response phase of this disaster? Why are these problems? Why are these issues important to resolve?Finally, how can these problems be overcome by the emergency manager and other related actors or agencies?       Floods are natural occurrences which are experienced during periods of high-intensity rainfall regularly. The changes in climatic patterns changes the intensity of rain and this could lead to future occurrences of floods. The emergency managers faces a lot of problems in trying to deal with this problem during the response phase. Some of the problems include communication system, geographical position, experience in handling the problem, lack of resources to deal with the emerging problem which in this case is floods among many more(Moore & Barnes, 2004).       Communication being a very important aspect in any activity of a particular group, its importance should not be underestimated. Lack of proper communication systems during the response stage in floods would lead to poor service delivery to the affected people. The geographical position of an area would determine how fast or slow the response team arrives at the scene to help. People staying in areas that can be easily accessed by the team are always rescued easily by the team. Selecting the best team for any emergency case is always a major problem faced. Improper selection leads to poor service hence the need to always choose the best team.       The aforementioned problems can be overcome by incorporating qualified personnel into the response team. In areas with accessibility problems, the best means available should always be sought. Good communication systems is also very important because the response team works together and it’s only through proper communication that they will render the best services. Who will be the most critical actors to arrive initially at the scene of the incident? Why are these actors so crucial? What kind of equipment and training should they possess?       The most important people to first arrive at the flood scene should be the Red Cross members, the fire fighters, health and mental volunteers. These people form the rescue teams. They help in evacuating the people from the flood invested area.       There exists two types of floods; those that occur gradually and the flash floods which may occur with little or no warning. The rescuers therefore undergo training to help curb all the two types. The most important skill one needs to know is the first aid skill and secondly how to operate a radio. Some however may also have the Swiftwater Training certificate. The people should be trained on hydrology which involves learning how water behaves when it’s moving quickly through a confined area. This helps them know to read the surface hence knowing the location of hidden materials like vehicle, concrete posts among others.       Defensive swimming is also another skill learned by the rescuers. This helps in keeping themselves safe. Working as a team is also another highly regarded skill that a person should possess. Working as teams helps the team achieve their objectives very first.       The equipment carried during the rescue process includes megaphones and whistles which assist in communications, ropes that would be used in pulling people to safety places and extra life jackets that would help keep them warm. In addition, they also have lanterns and flares for staying in touch.       What are some of the major and pressing considerations to consider when dealing with this disaster scenario? What are some hazards that will need to be assessed and overcome? Who will need to be warned or evacuated? Will transportation and shelter arrangements need to be made?       There are major considerations that should be considered when dealing with floods. The considerations include studying the flood frequency, the length of inundation and the effects of flood and role of mitigation in controlling the flood (Strahler, 1973).       In controlling floods, there are hazards which needs to be assessed. Gathering the hydrologic data directly from the nearby rivers is always very essential even though it might be time consuming. When data have been collected for quite a long time through stream gauging, then models can be used in coming up with statistical frequency of any given flood events. The importance of hazard assessments that are found based on the remote the remotely available sensing data, field observations and damage reports is that they can be used in instances when quantitative data is not available.       As mentioned earlier, the importance of determining statistical frequency is that it’s helpful in determining their probability. In areas without records for a long period of time, the assessments are always very difficult.       The people that stays near rivers or in areas that are prone to floods needs to be warned or evacuated depending on the situation of the flood. Those that stay in areas that are highly prone to floods should be evacuated. When distances that should be travelled are long, then transportation and shelter provisions ought to be made available to the affected people.       List the steps that would need to be taken starting with the most pressing needs down to the final details. How will emergency medical care be distributed? Will mass triage need to be established? Will the affected area need to be cordoned off?       The steps taken in helping solve or reduce floods and its effects include what is commonly known as the 3M approach. It involves Measuring Mapping (Schumann, 2011) Modelling       Failing to do what should be done on time has always thwarted the efforts of several governments, or organizations in coming up with a long lasting effect concerning floods. Complete protection from floods might however be hard but under good preparations, flood evasion is easy. The above listed points starts with planning. Prolonged warnings always makes people to be ready and hence helps them keep their belongings safe (Moore, 2004).       Emergency medical care to people affected with floods is very important and so is its distribution. The medical care equipment can be distributed through the use of helicopters in areas where other means of transportation is impossible. In instances where the flood is not extreme, then the drugs are distributed by the medical officers or the volunteers.       Mass triage needs to be established in areas where the flooding effects were extreme and a lot of people are affected. Areas under flood are likely to pose a higher threat for individuals to contract water borne diseases and hence the need for mass triage. Cordoning off an area might also be necessary so as to differentiate the flood infested areas from those that are not. Cordoned off areas are not allowed to be reached by others unless the flood subsidises. Why is emergency management so important during this phase? Could an unorganized response actually lead to more confusion and chaos? How can resources and personnel be allocated efficiently with a central command post?       Emergency management is important in each and every stage in disaster management. However, its importance is very vital during this stage because of the following reasons. Emergency management helps overcoming the emergencies because there is always a plan for it. With a good plan in place, all is possible. Secondly, emergency management helps in knowing the best way to deal with any problem should it arise. Having a survival kit is also another way through which emergency management helps an individual during occurrences like the flood. Inside the kit there are materials that are necessary in overcoming the emergency (Haddow, Bullock & Coppola, 2008).       Confusion and chaos arises in situations where after an emergency, there is unorganized response from the management team. This always comes as a result of lack of emergency management tips.       Having a central command post during emergencies like floods is very healthy in tackling the problem at hand efficiently. The stakeholders involved in helping solve the emergency for example floods, always assemble in the command post and work cooperatively to successfully mitigate the emergency through implementing a single incident action plan. A unified command post helps in the following ways Allows for specialist input whereby only specialised individuals are allowed to work on what they can handle It authorises each stakeholder to have input about how they believe the emergency will be managed.       Having the right command post therefore ensures that only qualified personnel are assigned certain tasks. This is because they are the ones with authorities on that field hence they can always deliver their best. What are the initial steps that must be taken before recovery operations can take place? Why is disaster recovery so important? Should we strive to make the area better than I t was before the incident?       Recovery involves rebuilding the whole community so that the affected individuals, governments and other body can now work on their own as they resume normalcy as well as prevent them from future hazards (Clements, 2009).       The following should be done before recovery operations can take place. The officials should get clearance to enter the site. The extent of the damage should also be looked at before starting the recovery process. Those planning to undertake the recovery process should also get professional advice. Command centre for the recovery effort should also be sought before embarking on the recovery process. Another important aspect that should be looked before starting the recovery process is establishing security procedures for the recovery site. Lastly, deciding how the salvaged materials will be treated should also be looked before commencing the recovery process.       Recovering from the trauma experienced during the floods might be quite challenging for many people. Therefore proper recovery steps must be undertaken to ensure people heal appropriately. Some of the recovery efforts include; giving medical aid, providing relief which comprises of food, water etc., clearing up the area, rebuilding damaged structures, reopening schools, businesses and all those places that were affected. The disaster recovery is so important in that it attempts to bring the affected people back to normalcy. People recovering from disasters always tend to have negative views so through the use of recovery process, they are made to appreciate life once more.       The recovery team should endeavour to make the area a better place than it was. Leaving an area in the same or worse state than it was before makes people have bad feelings about such cases. Hence, the need for making an area a better place than it was before.       How can the public or non-profit organizations assist in recovery operations? Should volunteers be sought and utilized? How could public donations be collected? How could debris be recovered and removed?       The public and the non-profit organisations have been used in recovery operations. The non-profit organizations serves as health care providers, emergency shelter operations, and search and rescue team. Furthermore, they offer psychological training, as well as emergency communications. The public may also be used in assisting the affected group through being with them together. This always makes such people feel appreciated. They always feel that people are together with them even in their predicaments. The role of the public and non-profit organizations like churches cannot be underestimated.       So as to make the recovery process a success, volunteers should be utilised. Volunteers are people who are willing to offer certain assistance at no pay. These volunteers might have dealt with similar cases before and are therefore more suited to serve and help the affected people.       Those in the team should however strive to know the real volunteers. Some may volunteer with sinister motives. These people always lower or reduce the rate at which recovery process is achieved. Such people always make use of the vulnerable condition of the affected people for their own selfish gain. This vice however should be condemned.       Public donations are very helpful in helping people recover from floods and its effects. People affected by floods needs food, quick medical attention and other basic necessities. The donations from the public if not collected using the right channels, might end up not helping in the intended purpose. Special bodies should always be put in place to man the public donations.       Prompt cleaning of debris remains after the floods prevents odors, diseases. Contamination from run offs and many more. The following are some of the methods that are used to remove debris. The vegetation should be disposed of correctly. They should be handled in a manner that prevents draining into streams, ditches and other surface water sources (Lamond, 2012).       Structures that are destroyed should be managed by the property owner and contractors if the floods affected construction sites. Sediments should also be discarded as solid waste.       Whenever sewage is encountered during the debris disposal process that waste does not necessarily need to be separated. It should be disposed at a landfill mixed with other debris from the flood.       Is the management of public relations crucial during the recovery process? How could information be relayed to the public to assure them that everything that needs to be done is being done? How could some of the survivor’s mental health have been affected by the disaster? Should crisis counselors be sought to deal with the survivors and victims of the disaster?       The management of public relations is very important during the recovery process.       Good public relations enhances good recovery. When there is poor public relations, there is less that canbe done to quicken the recovery process. Consoling affected people is of utmost importance during the recovery period. The people who have been affected by floods needs to be always encouraged that all is well and that help is always underway.       Leaving people in conditions whereby they are not informed promptly, panic always arises. The best way to inform the public that all is well is by using leaders who they trust. Information which comes from a more authoritative person or a person who is experienced in a certain field holds more waters than information being rumored.       The mental health of flood survivors may at times be affected. This is mainly in instances where the floods were so much and it caused serious destructions. The survivors might have seen some of their family members drown as a result of the floods. Sometimes, they themselves might have been rescued from death narrowly.       For such people to heal completely, they need the services of a crisis counsellor for them to recover completely. The crisis counsellors are trained in dealing with problems like these and so they help the affected in overcoming the challenges they face.       How important is it to promote a culture of vulnerability reduction to prevent disasters from occurringin the first place or at least mitigating their consequences if they do occur?       Vulnerability is a set of conditions which results from physical, economic, environmental and social factors that increases a person’s susceptibility to the effects of the hazards.       Promoting the culture of vulnerability helps in preventing disasters as well as mitigating their effects. This is due to the fact that the culture of vulnerability makes people aware of the problems they are facing. When one is aware of whatever he or she is undergoing, then he or she becomes prepared for anything. Being prepared means that solutions to problems can always be found before it’s too late.       Apart from making people aware, people are also have strong coping capacity. They are always aware and so they can cope as required hence helps in preventing the disaster.       How can technology be harnessed to smooth the recovery process? What are some tools available to emergency managers for recovery operations? Could the lessons learned from this disaster response and recovery be used in the future to better help communities respond to and deal with a disaster? What are some new and possibly unexpected threats that could arise in the future?Technology can be used to create tools that will lead to faster healings. The recovery process for it to be successful, technology must be used well. With the appropriate technology in place, transportation of medicine, staffs and other essentials that are needed will be availed easily.       Tools available for use by emergency managers during the recovery process includes weather sensor and satellite, fibre optics, phones video, medical equipment. The lessons learnt from this disaster response are very helpful in dealing with future occurrences. The response when dealing with flood can be used when dealing with other types of floods. Some of the possible threats that are likely to occur during dealing with floods is the network problem. When floods occur, network connection is always tampered with. This happens to be the unexpected threats in when dealing with floods. Network unavailability hinders smooth communication. References Clements, B. (2009). Disasters and Public Health: planning and response. Amsterdam: Butterworth- Heinemann/Elsevier Haddow, G. D., B ullock, J. A., &Coppla, D. P. (2008). Introduction to Emergency Management (3rded.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann. Lamond, J. (2012). Flood hazards: impacts and responses for the built environment. Boca Raton: CRC Press. Moore, R.,&Barnes,J. (2004).Faces from the flood: Hurricane Floyd remembered. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Rao, S. R. (2006). Resource recovery and recycling from metallurgical wastes. Amsterdam: Elsevier Schumann, A. (2011). Flood risk assessment and management how to specify hydrological loads, their consequences and uncertainties. Berlin. Springer. Strahler, A. N. (1973). Environmental Science: Interaction between Natural Systems and Man. California: Hamilton Publishing Company. Wisner, B., Gaillard, J. C., &Kelman, I. (2012). The Routledge handbook of hazards and disaster risk reduction. London: Routledge. Source document
Sunday, September 1, 2019
Biodiesel Investigation Essay
‘Biodiesel is a clean burning renewable fuel made using natural vegetable oils and fats.1 Biodiesel is a revelation to chemists, engineers and environmentalists who are looking for more sustainable ways to make use of fuels. Since it is a natural and renewable fuel, it can be fitted in as a substitute for petroleum diesel, which is the substance conventionally used in automobile transport. Biodiesel is normally utilised as a replacement for petroleum diesel fuel or can be blended together with petroleum diesel fuel in any ratio. Biodiesel is a biodegradable substance with a lower toxicity in comparison to petroleum diesel fuel and is preferred as it is safer to handle since there is little human risk involved in its handling. The use of biodiesel as a petroleum substitute reduces the degree of exhaust emission. Biodiesel are notorious for their easy use in terms of how they can easily be pumped and stored in existing engines without having to make major industrial alterations to the engines themselves. They are usually blended together with petroleum fuels in order to create the optimal usage in engines. The output yield of biodiesel is I had never really heard of biodiesel until it was a topic covered in school. After finding out what biodiesel was, I looked into the IB chemistry syllabus to see what points it had on biodiesel and looked further into the applications of biodiesel as well as the process of transesterification and what is involved. My personal interest was sparked from my curiosity of how to obtain my own sample of biodiesel after I found out about its many uses. My high school chemistry department provided us with a set of materials and allowed us to investigate our own ways of obtaining biodiesels and I was keen to see what I could do with a sample of this versatile substance. I do feel as though this is an important experiment to engage in as scientists find biodiesels an extremely useful substance to use in machines and such. To try an experiment which involves looking at factors that can change the output of the product, would be a stepping stone to building a stronger understanding on the substance itself and how more of it can be obtained and perhaps what benefits it may serve. The experiment conducted was intent on looking at a certain independent variable (the concentration) that would affect the yield of biodiesel produced in experiment. The research question for this is: How the concentration of Potassium Hydroxide solution would affect the yield of biodiesel when transesterified with a standard sample of vegetable oil. Background: To look at the scientific aspect of it, biodiesels are a form of methyl esters, an organic chain compound that has a set of properties. The experiment involves the reaction between vegetable oil and potassium hydroxide and methanol mixed together. The equation for the reaction of the transesterification is: Vegetable Oil (l) + (3)HOCH3 + (NaOH catalyst) â€â€Ã¢â‚¬â€> C3H8O3 + 3-methyl ester 1 Biodiesel Basics This valuable renewable fuel resource is not vegetable oil, but instead formed from the organic chain compound. It is 3-methyl ester and has the following chemical structure: Fig. 1 The diagram on the left shows the transesterification process that forms two products (Glycerol and A 3-methyl ester). The experiment conducted involves potassium hydroxide as a catalyst instead of sodium hydroxide. Furthermore the biodiesel product of this varies from the other structured methyl ester that usually come in The other product is glycerol, which is commonly found in soaps. This is a standard example of transesterification however the experiment that is attempted involves different reactants. The diagram below shows the process for this experiment and the outcomes. The temperature of the oil mixed with the methanol mixture will be measured and the experiment consists of five different solutions of KOH + methanol that will each be reacted with the vegetable oil. A magnetic stirrer will be used in the process to get the reaction going and afterwards the finalised solution will be placed in a centrifugal and the process of centrifugation will separate the solution into glycerol and biodiesel. The biodiesel will then be extracted to give a reading on percentage yield. The method was personally derived and many modifications were made to the initial standard procedure of mixing 50% concentration Potassium Hydroxide solutions with 10ml of vegetable oil and stirring on a magnetic stirrer for 10-15 minutes at a certain temperature was deemed to unsafe for students as the high concentration acid was extremely corrosive, had irritating effects and also raised environmental concerns as the organic waste disposal process was far more complicated when the substances would permeate a trash landfill. As a result the new method was made and the substances involved were altered significantly. The new method consists of a reaction with a 5g/100ml (KOH concentrated) mixture between potassium hydroxide and methanol. In each test, there is a varied use in the concentration of the methanol mixture and this is measured by an arbitrary percentage figure as well as a known uncertainty. Furthermore, the potassium hydroxide serves as a catalyst for the reaction. Equipment Used: Apparatus Uncertainty 10cm3 Measuring Cylinder 0.2ml Mass Balance 0.005g 50cm3 Beaker 5ml Magnetic Stirrer N/A Thermometer 0.5 ºc Magnet Capsule N/A Method: 1. To set up the equipment appropriately, use a 10cm3 Measuring Cylinder to measure out 10ml of vegetable oil, and keep aside separately. Measure 1.5ml of the 5g/100ml (1%) Potassium Hydroxide solution and place set aside in the measuring cylinder. Set up the magnetic stirrer, and measure the temperature of the oil using the thermometer. For this experiment, the oil (placed inside beaker) will need to be kept on the magnetic stirrer with the capsule inserted and heated to 31 ºc. Measure the mass of the empty beaker first using the mass balance and record. 1. Once the oil has been heated to the appropriate temperature, add the methanol-KOH solution with 1% concentration to the oil and allow the stirrer to stir at a constant temperature for approximately ten to fifteen minutes. After a few minutes of stirring and any visible physical/chemical changes have occurred, remove the beaker of mixture from the solution and set aside temporarily. 1. The methyl-ester biodiesel mixture is ready for centrifugation. Using the mass balance, measure out the mass of the beaker with the oil mixture that has just undergone transesterification and pour all the substance from the beaker into a centrifugal tube. 1. Repeat all the tests with the 2%,3%,4% and 5% concentration KOH mixtures in methanol. When repeating, remember to measure each separate beakers individual mass and use the stirrer to bring the temperature back up to 31 º. Once the temperature has hit 31 º, mix the KOH with the oil as done before and allow the stirrer to create a reaction between the substances. Keep making qualitative observations and recording changes in temperature from the reaction and record the mass of the final solutions once stirring. 1. Finally, once all the products have been reacted, place them in centrifugal tubes and insert the tubes into the centrifuge. The centrifugation process will separate the biodiesel and glycerol. Extract the thin biodiesel layer (on top), measure the mass of the biodiesel in the initial beaker and derive the percentage yield of biodiesel from the mass difference between the solutions, density from mass and volume and make observations on the mass obtained. Diagram of Process : Done On Skitch Variables: Safety And Environmental Measures: Plenty of glassware will be utilised throughout the experiment, and therefore it is essential that safety glasses are worn as extra precaution to protect eyes from broken glass. Furthermore, all glassware should be kept away from the edges of tables to prevent risk of damage. KOH – methanol mixture is labeled as an irritant and mildly Independent Variable: Concentration of KOH – Methanol Mixture as % value. Fixed Variables: * Temperature of Oil * Volume of Oil Used * Volume of KOH – Methanol Mixture Dependent Variable: % Yield of Biodiesel, Mass outcome of biodiesel from transesterification corrosive based on *Cleaps Hazcards and it is therefore advised to wear gloves. It is also advised to wear lab coats as products of transesterification may permanently stain clothing. Fortunately, there are no ethical concerns involved as only vegetable oil is being used and no animal substances. The biodiesel substance is biodegradable and can be easily disposed of in organic waste. *Cleaps cited in Bibliography Qualitative Observations: * In all tests after the oil was placed into the centrifuge, a gunky substance was formed from the separation into two layers, one being the biodiesel and it can be assumed that the gunky substance was glycerol (used in soaps). At times the position of the magnetic stirrer was not in place for some results, which may be a result of random error (anoma Error Calculations on Mass Example % Yield Calculations of Biodiesel 1% Concentration: Example Calculation [(0.052 à · 1.000) x 100%] + [(0.2 à · 10) x 100] + [(0.2 à · 1.5) x 100] + [(0.005 à · 5.962) x 100] = 5% + 2% + 10% + 0.08% = 17.08% Uncertainty ≈ 17% Absolute Uncertainty for 1% Concentration yield: 5.95g  ± 20% (1sf) 1% Concentration Solution: Mass of biodiesel Extracted: =5.952 ( ±0.005)g Total mass of oil Mixture (Products from transesterification reaction) 100 x (5.952 à · 33.119) ( ±0.1 *100) Approx 18% Yield ( ±0.3%) * lies) in results such as the 2% concentration. * The temperature of the magnetic stirrer would be set higher than 31 º, and many of the substances would exceed or be under the temperature of 31 º before the actual reaction began. * The volume of the oil and KOH mixture used in the second test may not have been the same amount as the first, which would cause an error in the percentage yield of biodiesels. Data Processing: 2% Conc. 3% + 2% + 10% + 0.08% = 15.08% ≈ 4.99g  ± 20% 3% Conc. 2% + 2% + 10% + 0.08% = 14.08% ≈ 6.84g  ± 10% 4% Conc. 1% + 2% + 10% + 0.08% = 13.08% ≈ 7.81g  ± 10% 5% Conc. 1% + 2% + 10% + 0.08% = 13.08% ≈ 7.97g  ± 10% Processed Data Table: Mass of Biodiesel (2DP) Total Uncertainty on Mass % Yield of Biodiesel+ Uncertainty-2sf Volume of Biodiesel Layer + Uncertainty Density of Biodiesel Uncertainty on Density Conclusion: Multiple inferences can be made from the data obtained. Firstly the clean burning renewable fuel has been formed from a derived method, in which a transesterification reaction has occurred between Methanol and Vegetable oil (using potassium hydroxide as a catalyst). It was expected that the increase in concentration of the KOH would cause a greater percentage and mass yield of biodiesel. Fortunately this expectation was met with the results provided, although there were a few given anomalies formed from the systematic errors present, it was evident that the experiment did match the initial hypothesis of an increase in biodiesel yield. Although the conclusion states than an increase in concentration of the KOH – Methanol substance would increase the yield of biodiesel in the product of transesterification, it must be understood that there were many imprecisions and boundaries for error were relatively high throughout the experiment. The primary reason for this is that only one test was conducted for each concentration, rather than gathering an average for each results, which was a result of time management problems. Despite the causes of error and uncertainties, the calculated average density of biodiesel produced was 1.23gcm-3. The literature value for this was given above (0.88) and this value has been taken from an experiment in which the yield of biodiesel was taken from vegetable oils using both sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide as the catalyst in the experiment. The experimental error for the density was extremely high, being around 40%. The general formula for calculating systematic error in experiments is as such: â€Å"Experimental error = {(Literature Value – Calculated Value) à · (Literature Value)} x 100 â€Å" The experimental error is actually the sum of the systematic and random error, (error which could influence one single result), and therefore varies for each result obtained. However the graph for the density shows the rising increase. Although a clean line of best fit cannot be placed upon the graph, it is clear that there is a steady rise in the output of biodiesel against the increase in initial concentration. It is evident that there was a random error for the 2% concentration with the mass output measured. This may have been a result of some of the substance spilling onto the stirrer during one of the measurements, when equipment was not handled appropriately. Since this only affected a single result, it was omitted from the graph, and the line of best fit was not inclusive of this result. Despite this, the error bar uncertainties are relatively high for the mass output, and therefore the min and max gradients vary highly, which means any value for output within this range would be regarded a systematic error in the experiment. In the density graph, the curve of best fit is exponential, and does not include the result obtained for 3% concentration, as this also appears to be slightly anomalous. It could also be regarded a random error as the gradient of the curve does not fit into the boundaries of uncertainty for this result. Reasons for this uncertainty could be a result of any of the limitations explored in the evaluation. Finally the percentage yield graph also has somewhat of a linear relationship between the output of biodiesel as a percentage of the total substance and the concentration increase together. The diagram (figure 4) shows a successful gathering of biodiesel, in which the top layer represents the biodiesel and the bottom layer the glycerol. There were other different physical appearances for other results (not photographed). Evaluation: Limitation Significance Possible Improvements Unknown layer between biodiesel and glycerol (Fig. x) It was difficult to distinguish whether this layer between the biodiesel and glycerol, (as photographically depicted above), could be counted as biodiesel and therefore it was either left out or in the measuring process, which would contribute to a systematic error of the yield of biodiesel being too high or low. To improve on this and reduce this uncertainty, a combustion test would need to be done on the biodiesel, as it is known to be flammable. The unknown substance should be tested with a flame test and if it burns, should be included in the yield measurements of biodiesel. Using Apparatus with a lower uncertainty for measuring out KOH – methanol substance The 10ml measuring cylinder used had an uncertainty of 0.2, which for 1.5cm3 of solution, was extremely high as a percentage uncertainty. Since this was used for all tests, it must be noted that this was also a contributing factor to the systematic error obtained for each test. To improve this, a different (more precise) piece of measuring apparatus, i.e a burette should’ve been used as it has an uncertainty of 0.05, which would’ve quartered the uncertainty on the potassium hydroxide mixture, and reduced the total uncertainty. Improper placement of beaker on magnetic stirrer Due to time limitations for conducting the experiment, multiple groups had to share the stirrer and therefore place two beakers with magnetic flea’s (capsules) atop the stirrer. This interfered with the ability for the maximum biodiesel output to be produced for each result, and since this only occurred for certain tests, would’ve contributed to any random errors present. To target this limitation, the best solution would be to find time to work on the experiment individually, so that the magnetic stirrer could be used for only one beaker. Impurity on biodiesel The substance measured may not be entirely biodiesel, but instead a mixture of biodiesel and glycerol that may have been extracted without notice. This would’ve caused a higher percentage yield of biodiesel to be measured rather than the actual amount. To add on to this limitation, the reason for an impurity would most probably be from a difficulty in distinguishing between the biodiesel and layer of glycerol. Any filtration process that could separate the biodiesel and the glycerol effectively, would be appropriate. The mixture should undergo centrifugation multiple times in order to separate the layers more clearly. Works Cited: â€Å"Biodiesel Basics – Biodiesel.org.†Biodiesel Basics – Biodiesel.org. Biodiesel Org, n.d. Web. 11 May 2015. Button, Scott. â€Å"Biodiesel: Vehicle Fuel From Vegetable Oil.†Energy & Environment 21.8 (2009): 1305-324. Web. Jamil, Cut Aisya Z., and (Ijera). Performance of KOH as a Catalyst for Trans-esterification of Jatropha Curcas Oil (2012): n. pag. 12 Mar. 2012. Web. 13 May 2015. â€Å"Secondary Science Hazcards.†Secondary Science Hazcards. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 May 2015. Images: â€Å"The Chemistry of Biodiesel | Biodiesel Project | Goshen College.†Academics. Goshen College, n.d. Web. 13 May 2015. All other images were personally taken and diagrams constructed using Skitch.
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